GRAMMAR
Definition of Determiners - Determiners are those words that are prefixed before nouns to determine their meaning. They can be divided into the following types:
1) Articles- a, an, the
2) Demonstratives- this, that, these, those
3) Possessives- my, your, our, his, her, its, their
4) Indefinite Adjectives- some, any, much, many, little, few, less
5) Others- all, each, every, both, neither, either, other, another, enough, most, several, one, two, etc.
1. ARTICLES (TYPE OF DETERMINER) (1) The Definite Article (The)
"The" is called the definite article. It defines its noun as something specific (e.g., something previously mentioned or known, something unique, something being identified by the speaker).
(This is a previously specified lake, i.e., one already known to the readers.)
(2) The Indefinite Article (A, An)
"A" and "an" are called the indefinite articles. They define their noun as something unspecific (e.g., something
|
This is a |
lake. |
|
(This is a previously unspecified lake.) |
|
generic,
something mentioned for the first time).
Important points to remember
i. The spelling of the word following the determiner is not important only the sound is important. Few words given below start with vowel letters but do not have vowel sounds. So the determiner ‘a’ is attached to them. For example: A union, A one rupee coin, etc
ii. There are a few words that start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds. They are preceded by the determiner ‘an’. For example: an honest man, an honour.
2. Demonstratives (This, that, These, Those)
Note that demonstrative determiners can also be used as demonstrative pronouns. When they are used as determiners they are followed by the nouns they modify. Compare:
This is my camera. (Demonstrative used as a pronoun, subject of the verb is)
This camera is mine. (Demonstrative used as a determiner modifying the noun camera.)
The demonstrative determiners are used to talk about
persons or things that have already been mentioned. This and These refer to the things that are near and can be seen. ‘That‘ and ‘Those‘ are used to refer
to the things that are at a distance but can be seen.
1. We lived in this house for four years.
2. I like this school.
This’ and ‘that’ are used for
singular nouns and ‘these’
and ‘those’ for plural
nouns.
1. Can you lift that box?
2. Would you like to buy those books?
3. Possessives (My, our, your, his, her, its, their)
The possessives are used to show possession.
Possessive determiners are different from possessive pronouns - mine, his, hers, yours, ours, theirs. Possessive pronouns can stand alone and are not followed by nouns. Possessive determiners, on the other hand, are followed by nouns.
Compare
This is my house. (my is a possessive determiner. It is followed by the noun house which it modifies) Is that car yours? (yours is a possessive pronoun. It is not followed by a noun.)
4. Ordinals: first, second, next, last,
etc.
The ordinals show what position something has in a series:
1. He is the first boy who has joined this school.
2. I shall meet him the next week.
3. He is the last man to help you.
5. Cardinals: one, two, three, hundred, etc.
Cardinals are ordinary numbers like one, two, three, etc. They show how many of something there are:
• There were only ten boys in the class.
•
She lived for eighty years.
6. Quantifiers: much, some, several, a lot of, both, all, etc.
The quantifiers refer to the quantity of things or amount of something.
• All children enjoyed the show.
•
They didn’t make much progress.
7. Distributives: each, every, either, neither.
Distributive determiners refer to each single member of a group.
1. Each is used when we talk about the members of a group individually and every when we make a general statement. Both are followed by a singular countable noun:
1. He met each guest.
2. The
minister visited every flood-affected area.
Either is used to talk about two things, but usually indicates that only one of the two is involved.
1. Either of the two girls should come here.
2. Neither is the negative of either:
Neither member came to attend the meeting.
3. Either can also mean
People stood in either side (both sides) of the road.
4. Neither is followed by a singular noun.
NARRATION: DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH
General Rules:
We remove inverted commas in Indirect speech.
We remove comma(,) used after the Reporting Verb.
No change in the Tense of Reporting Verb. If there is an object after Reporting Verb, change ‘said to’ into ‘told’. Tenses, Pronouns and words denoting nearness of time or position are changed.
Rule-1 : If Reporting Verb is in Present or Future Tense, Tense of Reported Speech is not changed- He says, “Hari is not well.”
He says that Hari is not well.
Rule-2 : If Reporting Verb is in Past Tense, Tense of Reported Speech is changed in corresponding past tense.
|
Tense of the Verb in Direct speech |
Tense of the Verb in Indirect speech |
|
V1/V1 + (s/es) Does/do + not + V1 Is/are/am + V1 (ing) Has/have + V3 Has/have + been + V1 (ing) V2 Did + not + V1 Was/were + V1(ing) Will/shall/can/may +V1 Must/would/should/ought(to)/dare(to) +V1 |
V2 Did not + V1 Was/were + V1 (ing) Had + V3 Had + been + V1 (ing) Had + V3 Had + not + V3 Had + been + V1(ing) Would/should/could/might + V1 Must/would/should/ought(to)/dare(to) +V1 |
*IF the sentence of Reporting speech is Universal Truth, Habitual actions, or Historical fact or any Proverb, the Tense of Reported Speech does not change though the Reporting Verb may be in the Past Tense. My father said, “The Sun rises in the east.” My father said that the sun rises in the east.
RULES FOR CHANGING PRONOUNS
|
Person |
Nominative or Subjective form |
Objective Form |
Reflexive form |
Possessive form |
|
First Person |
I We |
Me Us |
Myself Ourselves |
my, mine our, ours |
|
Second Person |
You |
You |
Yourself/yourselves |
Your, yours |
|
Third Person |
He She It They |
Him Her It Them |
Himself Herself Itself Themselves |
His Her, hers Its Their, theirs |
RULES FOR CHANGING Adverbs of time and place
Ago => before Now => then Tonight => that night
Come => go This => that Today => That day
Here => there These => those Yet => Still Tomorrow => the next day / the following day
Yesterday => the previous day / the day before
Yesterday morning => the previous morning / the morning before
RULES OF CHANGING QUESTIONS (Interrogative Sentences)
-Reporting Verb ‘said to’ is changed to ‘asked’ or ‘enquired’ and ‘say to’ into ‘ask’. ‘that’ conjunction is not used.
-Interrogative Sentences is changed into Assertive Sentence. Sign of Interrogation (?) is removed and full Stop (.) is used in its place .
He said to me, “Where is she?” He asked me where she was.
-Pronoun, Verb and other words of Reported Speech are changed according to the rules of the Assertive Sentence. If there is an auxiliary verb (is, am, are, was, were, do, does, did, shall, will, has, have, had, can/may) in the beginning of the Reported Speech, connective word ‘if’ or ‘whether’ is used. Hari said to me, “Are you reading a book?” Hari asked me if I was reading a book.
TENSES
|
|
Past |
Present |
Future |
|
SIMPLE |
An action that ended in the past. |
An action that is habitual or repeated. |
A plan for an action in the future |
|
Formula |
Painted |
Paints/Paint |
Will paint. |
|
Word clue |
He painted yesterday |
She paints every weekend. |
She will paint tomorrow. |
|
CONTI NUOUS (be)+ (verb) + ing. |
An action that was happening (past continuous) when another action finished (simple past). |
An action is in the process of happening now. |
An action that will happen in the future for a length of time. Will be painting |
|
Formula |
Was/were painting |
Am/ are/is painting |
|
|
Word clue |
I was painting when I saw the accident . |
She is painting now. |
They will be painting when you arrive tomorrow. |
|
PERFECT (have)+ (verb)3 |
An action that finished before another action or time in the past. |
An action that happened at an unsaid time in the past. |
An action that will finish before another action or time in the future. |
|
Formula |
Had painted. |
Have/
has painted |
Will have painted |
|
Word clue |
We had painted the house before the rain started. |
She has painted many portraits. |
He will have painted the bedroom before his daughter comes home. |
|
PERFECT CONTINUOU S (have)+ been + ing(verb)+ |
An action that happened over time in the past before another action. |
A n action that happens over time, star ting in the past and continuing into the present . |
An action that happens over time in the future before another action. |
|
Formula |
Had been
painting |
Have/has been painting |
Will have been painting |
|
Word clue |
She had been painting for a while when she started classes. |
I have been painting landscapes since I started school. |
We will have been painting for several hours before we can see how it looks. |
SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
1. If the subject is singular the verb must be singular too.
Eg 1: She writes neatly. Eg 2 : I sing in the evening.
2. If the subject is plural the verb must be plural Eg : They play with agility.
3. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns then use a plural verb. Eg : The director and actors work hard to put up a good show.
4. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must agree with a. the subject.
Eg : The management is strict and is thinking of making some changes in the rulebook.
5. When a phrase comes between the subject and verb, the verb still agrees with the subject not with the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the sentences.
Eg : The student with all the copies is allowed to enter the class.
6. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ use a singular verb. Eg : The manager or the assistant manager approves the bill.
7. When a compound subject contains both a singular and plural noun joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ the verb should agree with the subject that is closest to the verb.
Eg : The trainer or the officers write the report. The officers or the trainer writes the report.
8. The following words and phrases require singular verb: each, everyone, each one, either, neither, everybody, anyone, anybody, no body, somebody, someone, no one.
Eg : Each of the runners was given the kit.
Neither of you was exempted.
9. Uncountable nouns take a singular verb.
Eg : The information was disseminated by the researchers.
The research is essential for upgradation.
10. Some countable nouns such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds, contents and valuable only have plural form and take plural verb.
Eg : The goods in godown are expensive.
The earnings need to be mentioned in the form.
11. In sentences beginning with there the verb agrees with what follows the verb. Eg : There are many factors affecting the rise in temperature.
There is little to do in this field.
12. Collective nouns are considered singular and take singular verb. example group, committee, family and class but if the focus is on individuals in the group then the verb will be plural. This is rare.
Eg : The group does the work everyday.
The team leaves at five in the morning.
MODAL AUXILIARIES
Modal are those auxiliary or helping verbs that are used to express the mode or manner of the actions indicated by the main verbs. They express modes such as certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity, ability. Here are some characteristics of modal verbs:
1. They never change their form. You can't add "s", "ed", "ing"...
2. They are always followed by an infinitive without "to" (e. i. the bare infinitive.) Here is a list of modals with examples:
Modal Verb Expressing Example
1. Must Strong obligation You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.
Logical conclusion / Certainty He must be very tired. He's been working all day long.
2. Must not Prohibition You must not smoke in the hospital.
3. Can Ability I can swim.
Permission Can I use your phone please?
Possibility Smoking can cause cancer.
4. Could Ability in the past When I was young, I could run fast.
Polite permission/request Excuse me, could I just say something?
Possibility Accident could be avoided.
5. May Permission May I use your phone please?
Blessings May God bless you with a long life!
Possibility, Probability There are heavy clouds in the sky. It may rain today!
6. Might Guessing He might be sleeping at this time.
Lesser possibility, probability I might go on a holiday to Australia next year.
7. Need not Lack of necessity/absence I need not buy tomatoes. There are plenty of tomatoes in of obligation the fridge.
8. Should/ Obligation I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible headache.
ought to Advice You should / ought to revise your lessons
Logical conclusion He should / ought to be very tired. He's been working all day long.
10. Will Order You will do it just now.
Threat You will be punished.
Determination They/we will work hard to win the match.
11. Would Habitual action I would listen to music all day long.
Willingness I would work hard to come up to your expectations.
LETTER WRITING
Example 1 : Write a letter to the editor of a local daily urging him to print your article on unhygienic conditions in your society. You are Aakash residing at A-407, Gokuldham society, Jaipur.
A-407
Gokuldham Society Jaipur
10 Sept. 2020
The Editor Dainik Bhaskar Jaipur
Subject - Unhygienic Conditions Sir
Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper I, Aakash residing at A-407, Gokuldham society, Jaipur want you
to print my article on Unhygienic Conditions in my society.
I want to draw your attention towards the unhygienic conditions in my society. For past 10 -12 days sweepers have not been coming to our society. This has resulted into heaps of garbage that have gathered here and there in the whole society and have become breeding grounds of flies and mosquitoes owing to several diseases. The drains are overflowing with dirty water and the filthy smell has filled the air. It is causing inconvenience to everybody to move around in the society for daily activities, the children are unable to play outside, the windows cannot be opened due to the foul smell even the vendors have stopped coming to our society. The sweepers should be sent by the concerned office as soon as possible to evade the problem.
I hope after reading this article the governmental authorities will be awakened and do the neccesary as soon as possible. Thank you.
Yours sincerely Aakash
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